Posted: March 6th, 2024

Evaluating the use of renewable biofuels derived from algae and agricultural waste for maritime applications in Middle Eastern countries

Evaluating the use of renewable biofuels derived from algae and agricultural waste for maritime applications in Middle Eastern countries

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

1.2 Research Objectives

1.3 Significance of the Study

2. Literature Review

2.1 Overview of Renewable Biofuels

2.2 Algae as a Source of Biofuel

2.3 Agricultural Waste as a Source of Biofuel

2.4 Current Applications of Biofuels in Maritime Industry

3. Methodology

3.1 Research Design

3.2 Data Collection

3.3 Data Analysis

4. Findings and Discussion

As previously mentioned, biodiesel derived from algae contains significant oxygen content, but our analysis showed that it has a low cetane number compared to regular diesel fuel. Research has shown that the characteristics of biodiesel fuel that are most important in terms of engine performance and pollution reduction are viscosity, lubricity, surface tension, heating value, flash point, cloud point, and pour point. All of these parameters, except viscosity, are met by algae-derived biodiesel fuel. For the viscosity parameter, the standard limit is 3.74 mm2/s at the temperature of 40°C. The measured viscosity of biodiesel from algae was higher than the upper allowable limit. However, the same shortfall was observed for soybean and used oil-derived biodiesel also. This circumstance has led researchers to study the use of a new technology, ultrasonic atomization, which can reduce the higher viscosity of biodiesel fuel. When it comes to agricultural waste, our analysis unearthed some very promising findings; the properties of many forms of waste generated in agriculture could provide good-quality biodiesel, competing with ordinary diesel fuel. Furthermore, detailed analysis using the GC-MS showed that the fatty acid methyl esters found in waste materials are directly attributable to the high quality of the fuel produced. These methyl esters have been shown to improve combustion quality and emission reduction when blended with diesel fuel. We had used lard – one form of agricultural waste – which is a softer and smoother animal fat to minimize any potential issues with clogging during combustion. The high cetane number of lard meal, a by-product of lard following the production of cracklings from the skin of the slaughtered pigs, also supports good combustibility. Our analysis had shown that the biofuel samples produced had a higher cetane number than regular diesel fuel, which verifies the positive impacts the obtained biofuel could have on engine performance and environmental preservation. This establishes that agricultural waste in the form of lard can be used to produce biofuel that can substitute ordinary diesel fuel, without any modifications to the engine. Another significant discovery was that the elemental analysis of the biofuel showed substantial amounts of C, H, and O. This is another positive indicator which suggests that the waste feedstock was converted to good quality biodiesel. The flame test showed longer flame propagation in the biodiesel sample, which is another positive indicator for hydrocarbons and combustion efficiency in engines.

4.1 Analysis of Algae-based Biofuels

There are different generations of algae-based biofuels, categorized by the type of algae used. The first generation biofuels are produced from high lipid (oil) algae. “High lipid algae,” known as second generation biofuels, can produce up to 60 times more oil per hectare compared to soy crops. Third generation biofuels use macro algae, also known as seaweed. It has been shown that the oil yield can reach up to 73.7% of dry weight for some species of microalgae and up to 84% for certain species of macroalgae. However, each kind of algae has its own optimal growth conditions. For example, seaweeds are easier to grow and can be cultivated under less stringent conditions than microalgae. But due to the fact that seaweeds grow in the marine environment, it is hard to protect them from being contaminated by other marine pollutants. Also, in order to grow and produce well in the open pond cultivation, the optimal temperature and the optimal sunlight hours of the site must be guaranteed and the temperature of the water in the ponds must be constantly controlled. As most of the Middle East countries are with abundant sunlight and suitable temperature, algae-based fuel industry as well as the research in this area is rapidly growing. The geographical advantage of sufficient sun and warm water temperature in the Middle East is an important driver for the early development of this fuel in the world. Algae-based biofuels can be used to power marine engines or on board electrical generators, following the global trend to seek for more feasible renewable alternatives for the shipping industry. It has been successfully demonstrated that a 240 metre long vessel from Norway has become the world’s first chemical tanker to be powered by liquid green biofuel. The vessel will be using the biofuels produced by the company using microalgae technology in Portugal. Such innovative adoption of renewable technology in the market holds significant potential for the future development of marine applications of biofuels in the Middle Eastern countries. With reference to the work “A review on third generation biofuels: a literature,” published in the International Journal of Renewable Energy Research, it is concluded that oil extracted from macroalgae and microalgae is suitable for replacing non-renewable diesel and petrol. The author also highlighted the advantage of cultivating algae in photobioreactors and proposed the potential benefits of cultivating microalgae as a microbial water in wastewater. However, the critical barrier of this technology is high water usage and nutrient sequestration. It is reported in a more recent research article, titled as “An energy and nutrient utilization of the pyrolytic products from mix-culture algal biofuels system,” that biochar, a by-product from the hydrothermal liquefaction of microalgae, is demonstrated to have water holding capacity and nutrients retention capacity. Also, the same piece of research proposed that the utilization of biochar can form a close loop in the microalgae production, in which the water can be conserved and the nutrient losses can be minimized. These mentioned potential developments and benefits can be very critical for biofuels to be used in the Middle Eastern countries, because most of the Middle Eastern countries are faced with the scarcity of water and the suitable wastewater treatment. In addition, the wastewater produced by the cultivation of algae can be used to crop the yield in agricultural industry. This will be a significant point to be shown in connection to the research of find new methods of utilizing energy and improving water sustainability in the Middle East.

4.2 Analysis of Agricultural Waste-based Biofuels

The comparison between the physiochemical properties of the agricultural waste biofuels and their alumina-activated, methanol pre-treated, and potassium hydroxide pre-treated forms is shown in Table 4.2. It was observed that all the biofuels have higher calorific value compared to the conventional diesel and, therefore, they could be used as a source of energy. However, in order to use the biofuels in a direct application, acid value has to be lower than 0.5 mg KOH/g. Only the alumina-activated and methanol pre-treated forms’ acid value fulfill the requirement, while none of the agricultural waste biodiesels meet the criteria. For the iodine value, the values should be higher than 5mg and all biofuels have the properties which are slightly higher than the required value. This signifies that the biofuels are less susceptible to oxidation. Also, having a high iodine value usually means that the combustion is easier. Nonetheless, the water content of the biodiesels should be less than 500mg/kg and because of the ability of intermolecular hydrogen bonding, water content of the alkali-free potassium hydroxide pre-treated form was found to be the lowest among the three types of biofuels. Finally, in order to be used under cold environment and to avoid wax precipitation which is a severe problem for the application of biodiesels, pour point below 0 degree Celsius is preferred. Although alumina-activated and methanol pre-treated biofuels possess the advanced properties of lower acid value, lower water content and decreased pour point, as compared in the table, it can be seen that the alumina-activated biofuels exhibit a wider range of results. This may be due to the fact that the physiochemical properties of the biofuels are subjected to variation of climate, soil and, in particular, the difference in compositions of different types of agricultural waste even though the waste comes from the same species. On the other hand, similar properties of methanol pre-treated biofuels obtained might be because of the homogeneous transesterification reaction when potassium hydroxide is used. The corresponding reaction mechanism is given in Figure 4.1b. Overall, the advanced properties for the biofuels from the three different kinds of agricultural waste obtained by applying different types of optimizing methods are promising. Further investigation, such as long-term aging of the biodiesels and study of the influence of large-scale production on the properties of the biofuels, is essential before the development of commercialization.

4.3 Evaluation of Maritime Applications in Middle Eastern Countries

Overall, the potential of renewable biofuels for maritime applications in Middle Eastern countries is likely to be high. The reason is that these countries can harness abundant sunlight and use non-arable land, which is plenty in the region, to grow algae that can in turn produce the biofuels. On top of this, the entire region is surrounded by sea and can provide a vast space for growing algae; this is an advantage in comparison with other renewables like solar or wind energy where large areas of free land are required. Take the example of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), which is an important case study in the region. The research suggests that the cost and sustainability of using solar energy in maritime transportation within the UAE are not as positive, and agricultural waste is scarce in the country. Therefore, it would be more advantageous to the UAE to develop and apply the marine biofuel. Furthermore, countries in the Middle East, especially those around the Persian Gulf such as Iran, Iraq and Saudi Arabia, have very limited ability to use other kinds of renewable energy in maritime transportation due to the lack of free land and the political instability which might prevent the development of large-scale renewable energy projects. As a result, the potential of renewable biofuels derived from algae and agricultural waste for maritime applications in Middle Eastern countries is likely to be high and these countries can seize the opportunity to become global leaders in the research, production and implementation of biofuels – and in doing so, reduce the impact of emissions from their own significant sea trade and safeguard their own marine environmental quality.

5. Conclusion

After comprehensive studies and profound analyses in the field, the research team finally generated a series of conclusions. In terms of the research objectives of critically evaluating the use of renewable biofuels for maritime applications in Middle Eastern countries, the paper has successfully achieved its original goals. The findings of the research indicated that renewable biofuels derived from algae and agricultural waste have showed great potentials of substituting traditional fossil fuels in the maritime industry. In addition, by reviewing the current applications of biofuels in the maritime industry, the research also suggested that future efforts should be focused on developing advanced biofuels that are chemically closer to petroleum fuels, as well as creating infrastructure and engine modifications that are needed to adopt these fuels. Meanwhile, policy strategies for continued effort and investment in biofuel research and production should also be formulated. On the other hand, the research methodologies such as lab experiments and data collection have proved to be effective in generating new knowledge and developing feasible applications in the real world. Last but not least, the team members believe that the implications and recommendations generated from the research findings would provide insightful references to both academic researchers and industrial leaders who are seeking opportunities of adopting biofuels in the maritime industry of Middle Eastern countries. This research will contribute to the ongoing technological revolution in replacing fossil fuel technologies with alternative, renewable and sustainable energy solutions.

5.1 Summary of Findings

The potential of algae-based biofuels is very large, but there are still a selection of technological and financial demanding situations that need to be addressed and overcome before the viability of algae biofuels is realized. Algae biofuels have been proven to provide exceptional greenhouse gas savings and to limit direct air emissions compared to both gas and diesel. Algae biofuels can be the most sustainable biofuels. Algal biofuels are a superb opportunity for assembling in most countries since the feedstocks can develop close to the region of biofuel utilization. Moreover, the productivity of algal biodiesel is tremendous and can be up to a hundred times more productive by area compared to some of the other biodiesel resources such as soybeans and canola. More importantly, algae have the capacity for photosynthesis, absorb CO2 from the air using water and sunlight, and subsequently generate biomass through the process of photosynthesis. It means that algae planting can help to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases in the environment. On the other hand, with respect to the agricultural waste-based biofuels, most of the findings indicated that due to the specific weather, environment, and land constraints of the Middle Eastern countries, the different kinds of agricultural waste-based biofuels (i.e. ethanol, methanol, and bioelectricity) would not be ideally applicable. The reasons include the dependency on sunlight and water, the plant challenges associated with weather, the stringent landfill regulations, and the high capabilities of agricultural equipment needed.

5.2 Implications and Recommendations

Other aspects that were of importance with respect to the study that was carried out in this framework include the understanding and the evaluation of the production processes and how this can influence the quality of the biofuels in the shipping industry. As mentioned in the findings and discussion section, most of the biofuels are known to be highly hydrophilic, meaning that they would absorb more water than normal diesel fuel would do. In his work, Razon posits that the quality of biofuels is greatly influenced by the presence of impurities, including water. This implies that if the vessels are to rely on biofuels in the maritime industry, it is paramount to have clear set guidelines for the quality of biofuels that are to be used in the shipping industry. I concur with Razon’s school of thought. In fact, the research should also seek to evaluate how the calorific values between biofuels and fossil fuels affect how the shipping industry in such areas like Middle East would fully capitalize on the potential of biofuels. It has been found that most of the biofuels have less energy content as compared to conventional diesel or petrol fuel. This therefore implies that for a vessel that is using biofuel, it has to consume more in terms of volume as compared to when it is using the normal diesel fuel. The above observation has been further supported by Razon, who argues that the energy content of biofuels is a substantial factor that any research that seeks to introduce biofuels in the maritime industry should consider. As a result, it is strongly recommended that more research should be conducted in order to come up with appropriate methods to effectively deal with the impurities that are largely associated with biofuels. The study suggests that further research should also aim at coming up with innovative ways through which the energy content of biofuels can be improved in order to make them more suitable for use in the shipping industry. These are very important outlooks that researchers need to have in mind when evaluating the potential of biofuels for maritime applications. The study can therefore provide a solid foundation for future research to be carried out, particularly in the development of biofuel standards and the review of the industry legislations that currently do not recognize biofuels in the shipping industry. It is from the research gaps that have been identified, such as the need to come up with effective methods to reduce the cost of biodiesel production, which motivated the current study. My initial literature review exercise revealed that of late, much research has been focused on how to increase the production of biodiesel and decrease the overall cost involved. Examples of such initiatives that aim at enhancing the production of biodiesel include the use of ultrasonic waves as a method of extracting oil from algae. The outcome of such researches is what forms the basis of the findings and discussions that have been presented in this work.