Posted: May 3rd, 2023

Laboratory Experiment Report Assignment

Safety precautions were followed especially when dealing with the lamp. Since the lamp could get hot after prolonged use, readings were taken as quick as possible and the lamp was turned off between experiments by pressing the yellow button. The values of the short-circuit current was confirmed experimentally to demonstrate the operation of the panel. The black rheostat control was slid to the left to give maximum resistance. All the equipment was switched on and the brightness of the lamp turned to maximum. The rheostat control was then slid rightwards to give maximum resistance and the short circuit current recorded.
Task 1b: Maximum Power Output Experimental Procedure The black rheostat control was slid to the left to give maximum resistance. The resistance was the decreased in series of small steps as the voltage and current at each point was recorded. The power at each step was calculated based on the measured values of voltage and current. The maximum power output of the panel was then identified after which a graph was plotted to show the variation of voltage, current and power.
Table 1: Experimental results on Maximum Power Output Voltage (V) Current (l) mA Power (P) Watts 21.171 063.32 1.341 21.115 070.78 1.496 21.029 079.02 1.662 20.910 093.45 1.954 20.745 113.71 2.359
20.516 142.87 2.931 20.142 187.45 3.776 18.861 254.77 4.805 12.065 274.72 3.314 1.7266 280.78 0.485 Graph # #### Plot a graph of current, voltage against power When the current, voltage against power curve is plotted, the curve is a representation of the solar cell. The illuminator has the ability to shift the current, voltage curve towards the diode where power can be extracted (Ph Aranda, et al 2009). The illumination provides to the normal dark currents within the diode. The above curve illustrates the maximum Pmax at which the solar cell should be operated to give the optimum power output.
ln this regard, in order to get the maximum power output from a solar panel, it needs to operate at its maximum power point.
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ln this regard, in order to get the maximum power output from a solar panel, it needs to operate at its maximum power point. During negative voltage, the solar cell dissipate power leading to reverse bias in the bypass diodes Task 1c: Variation of Maximum Output Current with Horizontal Angle of lllumination Experimental Procedure The rotary arm was moved to the left most position and the compass position was noted.
The rheostat control was slid rightwards to give a maximum resistance and the short-circuit current was recorded. This measurement was repeated for each compass position, moving to the right. A graph of the results was plotted. Results and Analysis The efficiency of a solar panel can be calculated from the equation;
Pmaximum = Voc lscFF Where: Voc is the open-circuit voltage; lsc is the short-circuit current; FF is the fill factor and η is the efficiency. The performance of a solar panel is determined by measuring its efficiency in terms of the ratio of energy output from the solar panel to the energy input from illumination (Bahaidarah, 2013). Moreover, the efficiency of the solar depends on the spectrum and the intensity of the illumination as well as the temperature of the solar panel. ln this regard, when determining the performance of a solar panel, the conditions of measuring the efficiency should be taken into consideration.
The power of the incident light from the illuminator significantly determines the efficiency of the solar panel. ln addition, the horizontal angle of illumination affects the output current from the solar panel Table 2: Experimental results on Variation of Maximum Output Current Voltage (V) Current (l) mA W = 0.8262 106.62 WSW = 1.2576 168.05 SW = 1.4828 217.29 SSW = 1.6815 268.72 S = 1.7391 284.48 SSO = 1.6926 271.99 SO = 1.5077 224.03 OSO =1.2750 171.09 O = 0.8620 111. 57 P=Vl Varying the angle of illumination, for instance, would change the amount of output current depending of the optimal angle at which the illumination is maximally harnessed by the solar panel.
Task 2: lnductance of Solenoid Requirements; • An iron nail • A length of enameled (insulated) copper wire • A multi-meter capable of measuring inductance, resistance and capacitance • A ruler • A small piece of sand paper
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Task 2: lnductance of Solenoid Requirements; • An iron nail • A length of enameled (insulated) copper wire • A multi-meter capable of measuring inductance, resistance and capacitance • A ruler • A small piece of sand paper
Experimental method The copper wire was wrapped around the nail as per the specific number of the required turns of the wire based on the last digit of the student number.
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Experimental method The copper wire was wrapped around the nail as per the specific number of the required turns of the wire based on the last digit of the student number.
The first end of the wire was bent into a loop, leaving about 5cm of wire for the first connector.
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The first end of the wire was bent into a loop, leaving about 5cm of wire for the first connector. The second end of the wire was passed through the loop in the opposite direction. The loop was pulled tight and the wire wound tightly around the nail in a clockwise direction as the number of turns taken into consideration.
After winding the required number of turns, a second loop was formed.
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After winding the required number of turns, a second loop was formed.
The unwanted wire was the trimmed off leaving two connecting leads approximately 5cm in length.
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The unwanted wire was the trimmed off leaving two connecting leads approximately 5cm in length.
A sand-paper was used to remove the enamel from the leads and the electrical connection was done using crocodile clip.
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A sand-paper was used to remove the enamel from the leads and the electrical connection was done using crocodile clip. The meter was then connected and the inductance value read. A suitable LCR meter was connected was connected and the inductance measured.
A ruler was used to measure the length of the coil (l) and the average diameter by converting all lengths to meters.
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A ruler was used to measure the length of the coil (l) and the average diameter by converting all lengths to meters.
The cross-sectional area (A) was calculated based on the equation for the area of a circle.
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The cross-sectional area (A) was calculated based on the equation for the area of a circle.
The inductance equation was rearranged to make uT the subject of the formula and then the value of relative permeability was calculated.
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The inductance equation was rearranged to make uT the subject of the formula and then the value of relative permeability was calculated. The experimental results were compared to theoretical results with assumption that the nail was made of iron.
The length (l) of the inductor was varied by stretching and compressing the wire coil while noting the effect of the conductor(Ph Aranda, et al 2009).
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The length (l) of the inductor was varied by stretching and compressing the wire coil while noting the effect of the conductor(Ph Aranda, et al 2009). The findings were then compared to the expected results based on the inductance equation.
When the current was passed through the solenoid, a magnetic flux was triggered and consequently, an electromotive force was induced. The magnetic field then then alters the flow of current in the circuit. The alteration of the flow of current by the magnetic flux as a result of an induced current in a solenoid is known as inductance.
Results and analysis The length of the copper wire was measured using a meter rule and found to be 0.30mH L = µo µr N2A/ l L = length (0.25m) N= number of turns (60)
A = cross-sectional area (m2) L = length (0.06m) µo = permeability of free space (4.9 x 10-7) µr = relative permeability d = (4.54 + 5.23)/2 = 5.385 A = ԯr2 A= ԯ (5.385) = 16.917 x 10-5m2
ԯr = (4.9 x10 -7 (60)2 (16.917 x 10-5))/ (0.25)(0.06) = 5.102047 x 10 -5 Table 3: experimental results Length (M) lnductance(mh) 0.02 0.48 0.04 0.32 0.06 0.23 0.08 0.18 Varying the current (l), for instance, immediately after the switch is closed would consequently change the magnetic flux. However, in normal occasion, the current is usually directly proportional to the magnetic flux through the solenoid.
ϵ = −dφm / dt On the other hand, varying the time would lead to a change in magnetic flux through the solenoid wire hence inducing an emf on the circuit. The equation becomes; Φm=Ll where L is a constant of proportionality of the solenoid wire.
Since the solenoid had a given number of turns (N), the equation becomes;
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Since the solenoid had a given number of turns (N), the equation becomes; NΦm=Ll. ln terms of inductance, the equation becomes;
ϵ = −Ldl /dt. Where ϵ is the inductance The length L can therefore be calculated by making it the subject of the formula; L=ϵ /dl/dt where ϵ is the induced emf while dl is the change in current and dt is the change in time. On the other hand, the magnetic flux can be calculated by making the Φm the subject of the formula Φm=Ldt/N The inductance values calculated from this experiment is close to the theoretical value from the literature. When the current is constant with changing time, the will be no emf induced because the flux is not changing with time.
Some of the possible sources of error could include resurgence in the current over time as a result of resistivity of the solenoid thus reducing the value of inductance with time. On the other hand, a buildup of temperature on the solenoid with time would have reduced the flow of current thereby lowering the value of inductance.
ln conclusion, based on these experimental results, the inductance though having a positive deviation is very close to the theoretical value. ln this regard, the experiment is successful in proving the theoretical values of inductance. lt therefore means that when a current is subjected through a solenoid, a magnetic flux is produced by the current. The self-inductance can therefore be calculated if the flux is known;
L=NΦm/l. Additionally, the inductance is dependent on the physical properties of the solenoid and the number of turns of the wire. Task 3: Capacitor based energy storage Task 3 Part A- Measuring individual capacitance values Requirements;
• A pack of 10 electrolytic capacitors of equal values • Breadboard/ prototype board • LCR meter or multi-meter capable of measuring capacitance • A single strand connected wires Experimental method A capacitance meter was used to measure the capacitance of each of individual capacitor and the results recorded in a table. The mean value and the percentage deviation of each capacitor were then calculated. The spread of values and its relation with the component tolerance was determined. Since the electrolytic capacitors are polarized, they were connected with the negative terminal linked to the most negative side of the circuit. The negative terminal was identified by its characteristic shorter lead (Banerjee, 2009). For this experiment, the following capacitors were used;
Capacitors 33.220 µF 32.606 µF 34.840 µF 33.335 µF 33.626 µF 33.828 µF 31.808 µF 32.903 µF 34.724 µF 33.267 µF Average capacitance = 334.157/10 = 33.4157 µF Converting into percentages;
For instance; 33.220/33.4157 x 100 = 99.41 Table 4: Parentage capacitance Capacitor µF Percentage % 33.220 99.41 32.606 97.57 34.840 104.26 33.335 99.75 33.626 100.62 33.828 101.23 31.808 95.18 32.903 98.46 34.724 103.91 33.267 99.55 Task 3 part B – Capacitor in parallel
The 2,3 and 4 capacitors ware connected in parallel and the capacitance in each case was recorded. The general relationship that describes the findings for two or more capacitors in parallel was identified.
Capacitors in parallel Capacitors 2 = 065.07 µF 3 = 0.97.84 µF 4 = 132.80 µF Task 3 Part C- Capacitors in series/ Parallel groups Experimental procedure Two parallel groups of four capacitors were constructed. The capacitance of each group was measured separately. The two capacitor groups were then connected in series. The relationship that relates the overall capacitance of capacitors connected in series was identified and the experimental results compared with the theory. The advantages and disadvantages of series connection of capacitors were determined.
First group = 130.28 µF Second group = 065.34 µF Total capacitance in series = 043.5 µF Task 3 Part D – a suitable equation was identified for energy stored by capacitors. The energy stored by a single capacitor was calculated with the assumption that it was charged to the maximum voltage allowed. The results were then compared to the energy7 stored by four capacitors connected in parallel. The overall energy stored by two banks of four parallel capacitors was then calculated. These capacitors were then connected in series with the assumption that both series bank are charged to their maximum allowed voltage. The results recorded and analyzed.